In the first few centuries after Christ died, early Christians struggled to develop their systems of worship under pressure from government, pagan neighbors and other Christians. One of the ways that Christians set themselves apart from the hundreds of religious factions in Ancient Rome was through their burial practices. While early Christians had initially buried their dead in communal city cemeteries with non-Christians, by the mid 2nd century they began to create spaces underground for Christians to be buried together. These catacombs would become places of worship for these people and today they provide some of the best examples of early Christian art. Through study of the themes shown, modern scholars are given a glimpse of the early Christian world and insight into the stories that most inspired them.
The term “catacomb” was not contemporary to their development. The word actually emerged in the 10th century from the Latin word catacumbas, which referred to a specific location on the Via Appia that was know for its hollows and cavities. These places would become the natural spot for burials, both pagan and Christian. From the very beginning of the religion, Christians always preferred inhumation based on their belief that they would return to their bodies during the second coming of Christ. In the mid 2nd century some wealthy converts began to dig underground cemeteries on their own private lands. This use of private, not public space reflects the nature of the early church. Similarly, church services were also usually held in private homes. The patrons who built the original catacombs offered space to those too poor to afford their own burial niches. Many scholars believe that the catacombs were developed as a way of segregating their dead from the general population. However, it is much more likely that there were more practical reasons for underground burial.
Lack of space created a need for underground burial spaces. Land was expensive and excavating underground left the top available for other uses. The volcanic soil around Rome is called tufa, and it is easy to dig out and manipulate into multi-level burial chambers. Also, there was a sense of security created by burying within one’s own community. The individual burial niches were called loculi. Bodies were buried in a simple shroud, often with some personal objects. Some would place these objects in the plaster that sealed the tomb. It is common to see coins, lamps, or jewelry embedded in the plaster. The loculi would be sealed with tiles, brick, or a marble slab.
The first catacombs were administered by their patrons and the community, not by the church. By the 3rd century the church began to acquire some of the catacombs. One of their goals was to improve the spaces and make them more available to worshippers. Many martyrs were buried in catacombs, and a desire to encourage visits and veneration led to efforts to increase the size and beauty of the spaces. By the 4th century catacombs had specialized workers called fossores, who were considered to be part of the church hierarchy.
Tombs of saints and martyrs were places of veneration and their upkeep was very important. The tomb of St. Laurence was enlarged and renovated as early as the reign of Constantine in the early 4th century (St. Laurence had died in 258). The goal of these renovations was to beautify the space, making it more attractive to visitors. This practice by the church was viewed as encouraging the Cult of the Saints. The Cult of the Saints was a belief that saints and martyrs could act as intermediaries between the worshipper and Christ. It is this conviction that creates a need for larger spaces for worship, a desire to be buried near the graves of martyrs, and ultimately leads to the creation of an entire hagiography to educate and inform the public.
The encouragement of the cult could be viewed as a distraction from the divisiveness that came with administration of the early church. One example of that division comes with the elections of popes, specifically the election of Pope Damasus. His election had been very conflict-ridden, with factions separating on class lines— the wealthy supporting Damasus and the poor supporting his opponent. Violence broke out and the result was the massacre of 137 people. Once he was safely enthroned as the pope, Damasus sought to create unity through his patronage of the early Christian martyrs. He initiated an increase in feast days; in the 4th century the number had been 46 and by the beginning of the 5th the number was 150. Pilgrimage also became popular, with St. Jerome touring the cities on Sundays to visit the tombs of the saints and martyrs.
Imagery in the Catacombs
Tombs of martyrs were more highly decorated than those of the general population. While some were decorated with mosaics, the majority was adorned with frescos. The two most common images are the Good Shepherd and the orante, or figure in a prayer stance. The orante is a standing figure with her arms raised in prayer. She represents the state of bliss received by a saved soul after death.
Woman in orante stance
The Good Shepherd
Another Old Testament figure who shows up often in the catacombs is Susannah. Susannah was a virtuous Hebrew wife who is spied upon while bathing by two elders of the town. They attempt to blackmail her into having sex with them but she refuses. She was arrested and about to be executed when Daniel speaks up for her and exposes the lies of the old men. They are executed in her place. She represents the victory of virtue over sin and was a very popular figure near tombs of wealthy women.
Susannah and the Elders
Most of those buried in the Roman catacombs were not wealthy. For those who could not afford to commission a painting near their grave, a symbol etched into the cover of their loculi served a similar function. Popular images included the fish, the Chi Ro and the Alpha and Omega symbols. The fish was a popular choice because in Greek, the language of educated Christians, the letters used to spell out fish listed vertically is seen as an acronym for “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior” ΙΧΘΥΣ. The Chi Ro would become a major symbol in Christianity. These two letters in the Greek alphabet are the first two letters of the name “Christ”. Alpha and Omega are the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet, which symbolizes that Christ is the beginning and the end.
The Catacombs of Priscilla
One of the oldest and most important catacombs in Rome is the Catacombs of Priscilla, located on the ancient Via Salaria, or Salt Road. It is believed that it was named after its patron who was from a wealthy senatorial family. Her husband may have been persecuted, either exiled or executed, during the reign of Domitian for “wanting to introduce new things”. Sources differ as to what the land was used for before it was a cemetery. Some say it was a quarry, others say it was the family villa. During the time of greatest persecution, many martyrs were buried there including the martyred Pope Marcellinus, who died in 304. After the edict of Milan, six other popes were peacefully buried here. The Catacombs of Priscilla are believed to be the home to the oldest image of the Madonna in existence. The painting dates from 230-240 AD. It ties the Old Testament and New Testament together by showing the Madonna next to an Old Testament prophet (thought to be Balaam or Isaiah).
Madonna and Balaam
During the Renaissance the catacombs were rediscovered and studied as a link between ancient Rome and early Christianity. Catacomb openings emerged after earthquakes or landslides and provided a fresh look at Rome’s ancient inhabitants. With this new interest came new damage to ancient artifacts, as scholars paid little attention to preservation; instead, they became fixated on leaving proof of their visit through graffiti.
During the Counter Reformation, visiting and studying the catacombs became very popular as a means to confirm the dogma of the church. Since the Reformation rejected the Cult of the Saints, the Catholic Church attempted to lure converts back with this tangible connection to the martyrs. With this, a new industry began to develop- relic hunting. Men tore apart catacombs looking for pieces of the martyrs that could be sold to the church. Some were even directly employed by the church, which means the church sanctioned the destruction of these tombs.
In the early 17th century, scholarship reemerged with the work of Antonio Bosio. He is considered to be one of the first scholars to develop and use modern archaeological techniques. He explored and cataloged the catacombs, producing a book on the subject called Subterranean Rome. He led the way for other scholars and by the 19th century the catacombs are viewed as a resource to treasure. In 1851 Pope Pius IX established a commission to protect and scientifically explore the catacombs. The church is protecting and studying the catacombs to this day.
The catacombs are a unique resource to scholars studying the early Christian world. They show us the mundane aspects of early Christian lives, such as clothing, hairstyles and even occupations. They also show us how burials differed based on wealth and class. The wealthy often had large spaces with many paintings and occasionally mosaics. The poor were lucky to have a few words inscribed, and often only had a symbol or object to mark their tombs. Most importantly, the art and symbols show what stories resonated most with early Christians. Especially before the relative freedom of the Edict of Milan, images of Christ’s protection, like the Good Shepherd, or promises of resurrection, like Jonah, Lazarus or Christ himself, are prominent. These images help us understand the stress of being a follower of a new, unpopular religion, but they also show the peace and security these people felt in their faith.
Bibliography
Baruffa, Antonio. The Catacombs of St. Callixtus. Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2000.
Carletti, Sandro. Guide to the Catacombs of Priscilla. Translated by Alice Mulhern. Vatican City: Pontifical Commission for Sacred Archaeology, 2007.
Nicholai, Vincenzo Fiocchi., Fabrizio Bisconti and Danilo Mazzoleni. The Christian Catacombs of Rome: History, Decoration, Inscriptions. Translated by Cristina Carlo Stella and Lori-Ann Touchette. Regensburg: Schnell and Steiner, 2002.
